Organizations as Systems
Leonard, H. S., Kilburg, R. R., & Freedman, A. M. (2023). Organizations as systems. In Essential strategies for organizational and systems change: An overview for consultants (pp. 17–41). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000328-002
This chapter discusses that before the introduction of general systems theory (GST), organizations were viewed as linear, hierarchical bureaucracies managed through interrelated functions. This chapter explores various systems models, such as GST, Kuhn's social systems logic, Senge's systems thinking, and family systems theories, which offer a holistic perspective on organizations and help managers and leaders understand how to operate effectively within complex systems.